First Aid And Artificial Respiration Techniques

First aid

First aid is the first and immediate assistance given to any person suffering from either a minor or serious illness or injury.

Objectives of first aid

·        To preserve life

·        To prevent the victim’s condition from worsening

·        To promote recovery

General rules of first aid

    Never panic: Take a few slow deep breaths and determine what resources are available and what is needed?

    Evaluate the situation:  Check the level of victim’s consciousness, open the victim’s airway, check for breathing and pulse.

    Is the victim in a safe environment free from danger?

    Determine the priorities of treatment – which condition requires immediate care?

• Life threatening cases ( heart stroke/serious burns and injuries/poisoning)
• Non-life threatening cases ( fractures/  sprains)

Decide what care is needed and do only what you are trained to do.
Call for an ambulance or send for help.

Goals of first aid

The ABC's of first aid are the primary things that need to be checked when you approach the victim

• Airway,
• Breathing, and
• Circulation.

Action plan

Arriving at the scene of an accident remember the letters D R A B C

D- Check for DANGER – see if it’s safe to go to the patient.

R- Check for RESPONSE - Quickly assess if the patient is conscious or unconscious.

A- Check AIRWAY to make sure it’s clear.

B- Check if the casualty is BREATHING. Is chest rising and falling?

C- CIRCULATION – check the pulse

First Aid Techniques for Various Ailments

1. First aid for fainting or Losing Consciousness

Fainting is a temporary loss of the consciousness that happens when there isn't enough blood going to the brain because of a drop in blood pressure.

• If someone’s feeling faint, tell them to lie down. 
• Tilt the head back and keep arms at a right angle to the body. 
• Kneel down next to them and raise their legs, supporting their ankles on your shoulders to help blood flow back to the brain. 
• Make sure that they have plenty of fresh air. 
• Reassure the casualty and help them to sit up slowly. 
• If they don’t regain responsiveness again quickly, open their airway, check their breathing and pulse. 

2. First aid for burns and scalds

Burns and scalds are damage to the skin caused by heat. A burn is usually caused by dry heat, like fire, a hot iron, or the sun. A scald is caused by wet heat, like steam or a hot cup of tea.

There are three primary types of burns- first, second and third-degree burns. Each degree is based on the severity of damage to the skin, with first-degree being the most minor and third-degree being the most severe. Damage includes:

• First-degree burns: red, non blistered skin
• Second-degree burns: blisters and some thickening of the skin
• Third-degree burns: widespread thickness with a white, leathery appearance

There are also fourth-degree burns. This type of burn includes all of the symptoms of a third-degree burn and also extends beyond the skin into tendons and bones.

First aid for burns includes

• Immediately immerse the burnt area in cool water or by applying clothes soaked in cool water. 
• Remove any jewelry or clothing near the burn.
• Cover the area with a dry, sterile dressing and not with cotton or other fluffy material. This will protect from infection.
• If necessary , treat for shock.

4. First aid for Bleeding

Cuts, scrapes, and punctures can result in bleeding. Severe bleeding can be life-threatening. To stop bleeding: 

• Apply direct pressure 
• Elevation – lie victim down and raise the injured part above the heart and handle gently if you suspect a fracture. 
• If bleeding from a limb doesn’t stop applying pressure with hand to pressure point. 
• If any embedded objects are in the wound, apply pressure either side of the wound and place pad around it before bandaging. 
• Wear gloves, if possible to guard against infection.
• If the victim becomes unconscious, follow DRABC.

    5. First aid for Electrocution 

   Electricity can be very dangerous unless used with care. When an accident occurs with electricity, one must remember that it is not safe to touch the victim until the power has been turned off.  Electrical shocks always need emergency medical attention. 

    The signs and symptoms include 

•      Surface and internal burns 
•      Breathing and heartbeat may have stopped

                                                                                         

1.     Separate the person from the current’s source: The best way to treat an electrocuted person is to cut off the power supply and remove the victim from the current source with a nonconductive material.
2.     Do CPR, if necessary: When you can safely touch the person, do CPR if the person is not breathing or does not have a pulse. 
3.     Check for Other Injuries: If the person is bleeding, apply pressure and elevate the wound if it's in an arm or leg. 
4.     There maybe a fracture if the shock caused the person to fall.
5.     Treat for burns if any. 
6.     Call for help or ambulance.

      6. First aid for fractures (Broken bones)

     A fracture is a broken bone. It requires medical attention. If the broken bone is the result of major trauma or injury, call an ambulance or your local emergency number.  

    Don't move the person except if necessary to avoid further injury. Take these actions immediately while waiting for medical help:

•    Stop any bleeding. Apply pressure to the wound with a sterile bandage,a clean cloth or a clean piece of clothing. 
•    Immobilize the injured area. Don't try to push or force the bones back into the wound. 
•    Place sufficient padding to support the fracture site. 
•    Apply ice packs to limit swelling and help relieve pain. Don't apply ice directly to the skin. Wrap the ice in a towel, piece of cloth or some other material. 
•    Treat for shock. If the person feels faint or is breathing in short, rapid breaths, lay the person down with the head slightly lower than the trunk and, if possible, elevate the legs.

     7. First aid for snake bites

    Many snake bites are caused by non-venomous snakes but we should always assume that the bite is from a venomous snake and It’s essential to get emergency treatment as quickly as possible. However, there are some tips that you should also keep in mind:

•     Call for an ambulance immediately. 
•     Note the time of the bite. 
•     Keep the bitten limb below the level of the heart.
•     Allow the affected area to bleed freely for 15-30 seconds.
•     If the bite is on the limb, apply a firm roller bandage two inches away from the wound.
•     Wash the affected area with soap and disinfect the area.
•     Constantly check Airway, Breathing and Circulation.
•     Keep calm and still as movement can cause the venom to travel more quickly through the body.
•     Remove constricting clothing or jewelry because the area surrounding the bite will likely swell.
•     Don’t allow the victim to walk. Carry or transport them by vehicle.

    8. First aid for insect bites: 

    Insect bites and stings are mild, causing little more than redness, itching, stinging or minor swelling. Rarely, insect bites and stings, such as from a bee, a wasp, a hornet, a fire ant or a scorpion, can result in severe reactions. 

    To take care of an insect bite or sting that causes a mild reaction: 

•    Move to a safe area to avoid more bites or stings. 
•    If needed, remove the stinger. Wash the area with soap and water. 
•    Apply a cool compress. Use a cloth dipped in cold water or filled with ice. This helps reduce pain and swelling.
•    If the injury is on an arm or leg, elevate it. \
•    Apply 0.5 or 1 percent hydrocortisone cream, calamine lotion or a baking soda paste to the bite or sting several times daily until your symptoms go away. 
•    Take an antihistamine to reduce itching. 
•    If the injured person experiences severe symptoms like dizziness and difficulty in breathing, Begin CPR and call for help.

      9. First aid for heatstroke :

    Heatstroke occurs when the body temperature continues to rise, often to 40°C (104°F) or higher. Signs of rapidly progressing heatstroke include: 

•    Unconsciousness for longer than a few seconds.
•    Convulsion (seizure).  
•    Signs of moderate to severe difficulty breathing.
•    A rectal temperature over 40°C (104°F) after exposure to a hot environment.
•    Confusion, severe restlessness, aggressive behavior or anxiety.
•    Fast heart rate. 
•    Sweating may be heavy or may have stopped. 
•    Skin that may be red, pale, hot, and dry, even in the armpits.
•    Severe vomiting and diarrhea.

    Heatstroke is a medical emergency. Even with immediate treatment, it can be life-threatening or result in serious, long-term complications. After calling an ambulance, follow these first aid steps.

•   Move the person into a cool place, out of direct sunlight. 
•    Remove the person's unnecessary clothing, and place the person in cool place.
•    Cool the person's entire body by sponging or spraying cold water, and fan the person to help lower the person's body temperature. Watch for signs of rapidly progressing heatstroke, such as seizure, unconsciousness for longer than a few seconds, and moderate to severe difficulty breathing. 
•    Apply ice packs in each armpit and on the back of the person's neck.
•    If breathing has stopped, begin rescue breathing. 
•    Do not give aspirin or acetaminophen to reduce a high body temperature that can occur with heatstroke. These medicines may cause problems because of the body's response to heatstroke. 
•    If the person is awake and conscious, give the person enough fluids for hydration. 

Artificial respiration and Types

    Artificial respiration is a process in which air is forced into and out of the lungs of a person who has stopped breathing. Artificial respiration is started at the site of the accident & continued till the patient is shifted to the hospital. It can be performed in prone and supine positions.

   1) Schafer’s method (Prone pressure Method)

   2) Holger Neilson’s method (Arm lift back pressure method)

   3) Sylvester’s method (Arm lift chest pressure method) 

   4) Mouth to mouth respiration 

   

   Schafer’s method (Prone pressure Method) 

•   1. Lay the victim down. 
•   2. The doctor kneels near the patient’s waist. 
•   3. Put palm on the patient’s loin. By bending forward doctor will apply  pressure. 
•   4. Pushing abdominal viscera brings about expiration. 
•   5. When doctor presses on loin ,expiration  takes place ,when doctor bend backward  Inspiration takes place. 
•   6. Inspiration lasts for 3 sec ,expiration lasts  for 2 sec . 
•   7. Main advantage of Schafer’s method is it’s  prone position.
•   8. So water from abdomen &  lungs can be easily drained. 
•   9. If there are injuries of the abdomen , this method cannot be applied. 
•  10.Repeat these two movements for about 10 to 15 times in a minute until the doctor arrives.

   

      Holger Neilson’s method ( Arm liftback pressure method)

•    This is also in the prone position
•    Doctor kneels near the patient’s head facing  towards him
•    Doctor pulls his arms up. This will bring  about inspiration
•    Then the doctor leaves his hands on side &  put his palms on the patient’s back  &  bending forward he will apply deep pressure on his chest. This will cause expiration
•    Main advantage of this method is adequate  drainage of water from abdomen & thorax.So this is a good method in cases of drowning
•    Both inspiration & Expiration are active, so  good ventilation is obtained.

    

  

         Sylvester’s method ( Arm lift chest pressure method)

•    It is in Supine position
•    Pillow is given below shoulder & neck is  fully extended
•    Doctor kneels  near the patient’s head, facing  towards him
•    He catches the patient’s wrist & by bending forward he pulls the patient’s arms up. This  will cause Inspiration
•    Then bending forward, he puts  deep  pressure on the chest, with patient’s hands this  will cause expiration
•    Inspiration should last for 3 sec &  expiration for 2 sec
•    Main advantage of this method is both inspiration & expiration are active,so good ventilation is obtained.
•    Disadvantages are, as the patient is in the supine position, there is no drainage of water from the lungs. So this method should not be used in cases of drowning 
•    If there is rib fracture or thorax  , this  method cannot be used

       Mouth to mouth respiration

• It is the best method of artificial respiration

• Doctor kneels near the patient’s neck, facing  towards him.

• Pillow is given below shoulder, so as to  extend neck fully

• With left-hand patient’s nostrils are closed. Tissue paper or the handkerchief is put on the patient’s mouth.

• Doctor blows expired air in patient’s mouth. This will cause inspiration

• By taking mouth away, expiration occurs  passively

• Advantages of this method are giving  expired air , which contain CO 2, which  stimulate patient’s respiratory center.Good  ventilation is obtained

• It is the best method of artificial respiration in newborn babies.

         External cardiac massage

•  It is done, in the patient’s cardiac arrest

•  It is given by putting left palm on the sternum & impacts are given by the right palm

•  With this cardiac massage, mouth to mouth  respiration can be continued with 30:2 ( 30 Chest compressions with 2 rescue breaths)

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)

    Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving technique useful in many emergencies, including a heart attack or near drowning, in which someone's breathing or heartbeat has stopped. CPR can be performed by any trained person. It involves external chest compressions and rescue breathing.

    CPR can be summarized as ABCs:

     Airway: Open the airway

    Open the person's airway using the head-tilt, chin-lift maneuver. Put your palm on the person's forehead and gently tilt the head back. Then with the other hand, gently lift the chin forward to open the airway.

    

    Breathing: Breathe for the person

     Rescue breathing can be mouth-to-mouth breathing or mouth-to-nose breathing if the mouth is seriously injured or can't be opened.

1.With the airway open (using the head-tilt, chin-lift maneuver), pinch the nostrils shut for mouth-to-mouth breathing and cover the person's mouth with yours, making a seal.

2. Prepare to give two rescue breaths. Give the first rescue breath — lasting one second — and watch to see if the chest rises. If it does rise, give the second breath. If the chest doesn't rise, repeat the head-tilt and then give the second breath.

C

                   

ompressions: Restore blood circulation

1. Put the patient on his back on a firm surface, like the ground or floor.

2. Kneel at his side, next to his neck and shoulder. Place the palm of your hand on his chest between his nipples, and place your other hand on top of your hand.

3. Then press his chest straight down by at least two inches. You won’t break the sternum this way. Do this 30 times.

4. Today, instead of A-B-C, which stood for airway and breathing first, followed by chest compressions, AHA has recommended to begin CPR with chest compressions, followed by airway and breathing (C-A-B)

Water pollution and Control

WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution occurs when undesirable and unwanted substances are added to the water bodies that can cause physical, chemical and biological changes in water quality.

The major sources of water pollutants are as given below:

The major pollutants are:

1. Pathogens: Bacteria and other micro-organisms come under this category. They get into water bodies through domestic sewage and animal excreta. Bacteria like Escherichia coli which are found in human excreta are known vectors of gastrointestinal diseases.

2. Organic wastes: They are generally bio-degradable wastes that pollute the water bodies by mixing with them during their runoff phase. An excess amount of organic matter in water bodies suck up the dissolved oxygen in water thus inhibiting aquatic life in these water bodies.

3. Chemical pollutants: Heavy metals like mercury, cadmium and nickel come under this category. These chemicals when present above the allowable limit can result in damage of the central nervous system, kidneys and liver.

Sources of water pollution

Point source

When contamination originates from a single source, it’s called point source pollution. Examples include wastewater (also called effluent) discharged legally or illegally by a manufacturer, oil refinery, or wastewater treatment facility, as well as contamination from leaking septic systems, chemical and oil spills, and illegal dumping. 

Nonpoint source

Nonpoint source pollution is contamination derived from diffuse sources. These may include agricultural, surface runoffs or stormwater runoff or debris is blown into waterways from the land. Nonpoint source pollution is the leading cause of water pollution as per the studies.

Causes of Water Pollution

The key causatives of water pollution in India are:

·        Industries

·        Urbanization

·        Social and Religious Practices

·        Agriculture

 Effects of Water Pollution

The effect of water pollution depends upon the type of pollutants and its concentration. Also, the location of water bodies is an important factor to determine the levels of pollution.

• Water bodies in the vicinity of urban areas are extremely polluted. This is the result of dumping garbage and toxic chemicals by industrial and commercial establishments.
• Water pollution drastically affects aquatic life. It affects their metabolism, behaviour, causes illness and eventual death. Chemicals such as this travel up the food chain before entering the human body.
• The effect of water pollution can have a huge impact on the food chain. It disrupts the food-chain. Cadmium, Mercury and lead are some toxic substances, these pollutants upon entering the food chain through animals(fish when consumed by animals, humans) can continue to disrupt at higher levels. Eg: Minamata disease caused by severe mercury poisoning.
• Humans are affected by pollution and can contract diseases such as hepatitis through faecal matter in water sources. Poor drinking water treatment and unfit water can always cause an outbreak of infectious diseases such as cholera etc.
• The ecosystem can be critically affected, modified and destructured because of water pollution.

* Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen required by bacteria to decompose organic matter in a certain volume of a sample of water. Clean water will have a BOD of below 5 ppm whereas a highly polluted water the source will have a BOD of more than 17 ppm.

Eutrophication

The excessive growth (or bloom) of algae and plankton in a water body due to enrichment of nutrients like Nitrogen and Phosphorus is known as Eutrophication. Eutrophication is considered to be a serious environmental concern since it often results in the deterioration of water quality and the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water bodies. Eutrophic waters can eventually become “dead zones” those are incapable of supporting life.

Causes of Eutrophication

The availability of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus limits the growth of the plant life in an ecosystem. When water bodies are enriched with these nutrients, the growth of algae, and phytoplankton.

The enrichment of water bodies with the nutrients include:

• Fertilizers
• Untreated sewage
• Detergents containing phosphorus
• Industrial discharge of waste.

Among these sources, the primary contributors to eutrophication include agriculture and industrial wastes.

Process of Eutrophication

The excessive growth of algae in eutrophic waters is accompanied by the generation of a large biomass of dead algae. These dead algae sink to the bottom of the water body where they are broken down by bacteria, which consume oxygen in the process.

The overconsumption of oxygen leads to hypoxic conditions (conditions in which the availability of oxygen is low) in the water. The hypoxic conditions at the lower levels of the water body lead to the suffocation and eventual death of larger life forms such as fish.

Effects of Eutrophication

• The algal blooms limit the amount of dissolved oxygen required for respiration by other animal and plant species in the water leading to oxygen depletion.
• The growth of phytoplankton also causes reduced light penetration into the lower depths of the water. This can bring about aquatic dead zones, loss of aquatic life and it also lessens biodiversity.
• Extensive deterioration of water quality and decline in the availability of clean drinking water is resulted.
• The toxic compounds that get accumulated due to excess plant growth and anaerobic conditions can also make their way up the food chain, contributing to various negative health impacts such as cancers. 
• It can also cause death in humans and animals even at the least concentration when ingested in drinking water.
• High nitrogen concentration in drinking water is associated with the ability of inhibiting blood circulation in infants, a condition known as blue baby syndrome.

WASTE WATER TREATMENT (OR) SEWAGE WATER TREATMENT

Wastewater treatment is any process, operation or combination of process and operations that make the wastewater less dangerous and repulsive to man. It is a combination of physical, chemical and biological process. There are three types of operation and process:

(a)  Physical unit operation: It is an operation in which the application of physical forces predominates.

Eg: screening, flocculation, sedimentation and floatation.

(b) Chemical unit process: It is a process in which removal of contaminants are brought about by chemical activity.

Eg: Chemical precipitation, adsorption, ion exchange, electrodialysis.

(c)  Biological unit process: It is a process in which removal of contaminants is brought about by biological activity.

Eg: Activated sludge process, trickling filtration.

Conventional wastewater treatment process:

It consists of a combination of physical, chemical and biological process and operations to remove solids and organic matter. General terms used to describe different degree of waste water treatment are preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary treatment.

PRIMARY TREATMENT

Sedimentation:    It is a physical water treatment process used to settle out suspended solids in water under influence of gravity. It is after used as a primary stage in modern waste water treatment plant, reducing the content of suspended solids as well as the pollutants embedded in the suspended solids.

         

It is an operation by which the suspended particles in liquid settle by gravity to the bottom of the tank, from which they may be removed as sludge. After some time, lighter solids and oil floats on the surface of liquid and can be separated as sludge.

Coagulation and Flocculation: It is a chemical water treatment techniques typically applied prior to sedimentation and filtration to enhance the ability of a treatment process to remove particles.

Coagulation is a process where water are treated with reagents to form coagulates. Coagulants with charge opposite to that of suspended solids are added to the mass to trap particles thus forming a mass charge enough to settle or be trapped in the filter.

The substances that are used as coagulants. The most common ones are: Alum (Al₂(SO₄)₃.H₂O), ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride.

Flocculation:  It is gentle stirring or agitation to encourage the particles thus formed to agglomerate into masses large enough to settle and be filtered from the solution.

Equalization:

Flow equalization is a method used to overcome the operational problems and flow rate variations to improve the processes.

Its objective is by providing storage to hold water when it is arriving too rapidly and to supply when it is arriving less rapidly.

The main function of equalization is to act as buffer. To collect the incoming raw effluent that comes at widely fluctuating rates and maintain at steady (average) flow rate.

Neutralisation:

· Industrial wastes often contain acidic or alkaline components which require neutralisation before discharge or treatment.

• For waters entering biological treatment processes the “p^H” should be maintained between “6.5 - 9” for optimum growth of the micro-organisms.
• Acidic waste are commonly neutralised with alkaline streams like ammonia, caustic soda / soda ash.
• Lime is the most widely used alkaline material for neutralisation of acid wastes.
• Alkaline wastes require treatment with acidic streams like Sulphuric acid or Hydrochloric acid.

Ion Exchange :

 H₂O  -->  H⁺ + OH^-

 NaCl -->  Na⁺  +  Cl^-

Ion exchange is a treatment method where one or more undesirable ionic contaminants are removed from water by exchange with another or less objectionable ionic substance.

Both the contaminants of the exchanged substance must be dissolved and have the same type of electric charge (+ve or –ve). The use of ion-exchange aims to reduce “Calcium and Magnesium” content in water softening.

Adsorption

Adsorption is a waste water purification technique for removing a wide range of compounds from industrial waste water. Adsorption works on the principle of adhesion. The process of adhesion involves separation of a substance from one phase accompanied by its accumulation or concentration at the surface of another.

 

The process can take place in any of the following system:

·        Liquid-Gas,

·        Liquid-Liquid,

·        Solid-Liquid,

·        Solid-Gas.

• The adsorbing phase is the ‘adsorbent’ and the material concentrated or adsorbed at the surface of adsorbing phase is the ‘adsorbate’.
• Activated carbon was the first widely used adsorbent.
• Activated carbon is an excellent adsorbent because it has a strong affinity for binding organic substances even at low concentration.
• It is considered to be a refining treatment and as such is applied at the end of the most common treatment systems especially after a biological treatment.

 

Electro-dialysis

Electro-dialysis water treatment process is one of the water treatment method that employ reverse osmosis membranes which are semi-permeable to ions based on their charge, under the influence of electric field to reduce the ionic content of water.

Electro-dialysis involves passing water between two plates with opposite electrical charges. The +vely charged ions  in the water are attracted to the plate with negative charge  (cathode) while the –vely charged ions are attracted to the plate with the positive (+) charge. Both the types of ions can be removed from the plates and discarded.

Chemical Precipitation

Chemical precipitation is the most common method for removing dissolved metal from waste water solution containing toxic metals. To convert the dissolved metals into solid particle, a precipitation reagent is added to the mixture.

Filtration can then be used to remove the particles from the mixture.

Eg:    (a)    Softening of water with milk or lime (removed by “Ca” or “Mg”)

(b)   Removal of phosphorous from waste water using Iron Chloride.

(c)    Removal of heavy metals as Hydroxides.

SECONDARY TREATMENT

Aerobic Treatment

Waste water treatment process is governed by aerobic organisms which need oxygen for the breaking process. Aerobic waste water treatment tanks are constantly supplied with oxygen. It has been done by circulating air through the tanks. For effective functioning of aerobic organisms sufficient amounts of oxygen should be present in the aerobic tanks at all times. Therefore, aeration is properly maintained throughout aerobic treatment.

 Anaerobic Treatment

         

Anaerobic waste water treatment is a biological treatment process where organisms, especially bacteria, break down organic material in the waste water in oxygen absent environment. Anaerobic digestion is well known anaerobic waste water treatment process. The degradation of organic material is done anaerobically. For the effective anaerobic digestion of organic material, the entry of air into anaerobic tanks is prevented. 

During anaerobic digestion, Methane and Carbon dioxide are produced. Methane is a biogas. Hence, anaerobic digestion process can be used to produce biogas which can be utilized as electricity.

                                                                      

Biological Treatment

Activated Sludge

Microorganisms such as bacteria and protozoa can use the small particles and dissolved organic matter, not removed in primary treatment, as food. Secondary or biological treatment is performed in a tank containing a “soup” of starved microbes called activated sludge. Like us, these microbes require air to live (they are aerobic organisms) and thus air is pumped into the tank. Microorganisms in this aeration tank use the dissolved and particulate organic matter as food, producing more microorganisms which can be collected and separated from the water in the next step.

It then remains to separate out the microorganisms (activated sludge) so that just clean water is left. This is done in a secondary clarifier which operates in the same manner. Some of the solids collected in the secondary clarifier (return activated sludge) are sent back to the aeration tank to treat more wastewater and the excess (waste activated sludge) is pumped to another location in the pant for further treatment. The clean water that flows out the top of the clarifier is sent along for disinfection.

Trickling filters

Trickling filters are conventional aerobic biological wastewater treatment units, such as active sludge systems or rotating biological contactors which are used to remove organic matter from wastewater. The TF is an aerobic treatment system that utilizes microorganisms attached to a medium to remove organic matter from wastewater. This type of system is common to a number of technologies such as rotating biological contactors and packed bed reactors (Biotowers).

TFs enable organic material in the wastewater to be adsorbed by a population of microorganisms (aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative bacteria; fungi; algae; and protozoa) attached to the medium as a biological film or slime layer (approximately 0.1 to 0.2 mm thick). As the wastewater flows over the medium, microorganisms already in the water gradually attach themselves to the rock, slag, or plastic surface and form a film. The organic material is then degraded by the aerobic microorganisms in the outer part of the slime layer.

As the layer thickens through microbial growth, oxygen cannot penetrate the medium face, and anaerobic organisms develop. As the biological film continues to grow, the microorganisms near the surface lose their ability to cling to the medium, and a portion of the slime layer falls off the filter. This process is known as sloughing. The sloughed solids are picked up by the underdrain system and transported to a clarifier for removal from the wastewater.

Adequate airflow is important to ensure sufficient treatment performance and prevent odours. To evenly distribute the water on the filter, a “rotary sprinkler/distributor” is most often used.

The primary factors that must be considered in the design of trickling filters include

·         the type of filter media to be used

·         the spraying system, and

·         the configuration of the under-drain system

TERTIARY TREATMENT

The final step before releasing the treated wastewater to the environment is to kill microorganisms that might be health hazards. This process is called disinfection.

Disinfection

The process of killing or inactivating pathogens or other microorganisms is known as disinfection. This is done by the following ways:

(a)U.V Treatment:   Exposing water to UV rays will kill the germs and microorganisms in water.

(b) Ozonisation: Ozone is passed into water will kill the germs and microorganisms. It produces powerful disinfectant.

(c) By Passing Chlorine: Chlorine gas is passed to the water. It produces hypochlorous acid, which acts as a disinfectant. Liquid Chlorine is a powerful disinfectant.